Marriage between relatives in the Arab countries Essay

Marriage between relatives in the Arab countries - Essay Example That is followed by the trends in marriage to identify any other factors influencing the consanguinity in the Arab culture. After developing a deep understanding of the Arab culture and trends, the practice of consanguinity is discussed itself. This is followed by the causes of consanguineous marriages in the Arab world. Different factors contribute to the practice of consanguinity such as culture, family, location, etc., are then discussed in the light of previous studies. The misconceptions about the practice are also taken into consideration. The consequences of consanguineous marriage are then discussed with the help of empirical evidence on the topic. The reproductive and genetic disadvantages of consanguineous marriages are discussed in particular. The paper ends with a conclusion on the subject matter. The Arab world basically consists of 23 countries stretching from Morocco to the Persian Gulf, also including the Northern Africa. The term ‘Arab’ is used to refer to people whose first language is Arabic or to people who belong to this culture. The Arab world is vast and occupies all the parts of the Arabic Gulf, Mesopotamia, Middle East, and North Africa, while it also includes some parts of the East and West Africa (Tadmouri, 2010). The total population of the Arab world is more than 315 million (Tadmouri, 2010). The Arab world is relatively diverse as it does not only refer to a single race. The Arab world includes people belonging to different race and culture as some Arabs may have coloured eyes and light skin while others may be dark or somewhere in the middle. Hence Arabs cannot be defined by the colour of their skin, nor do they all belong to a single religion. Though the Arab world is dominated by Muslims, millions of Christian and thousands of Jews are also a part of the Arab world and culture (ADC, 2010). Being an Arab is

Are Clausewitz theory of Friction and Means and Ends relevant to a Research Paper

Are Clausewitz theory of Friction and Means and Ends relevant to a college student today - Research Paper Example It is important to remember that the fog stems from corrupted information and so, the US officers can get better able to see and interpret everything by making advancements in information technologies. This research paper is basically an attempt to scrutinize the extent to which the Clausewitzian concepts on war can be considered relevant today for college students by exploring what the research literature has to say on the subject. Carl Von Clausewitz served in military army and developed many momentous theories about war. Those theories can be found in his epic book â€Å"On War† which was still unfinished when he died. He has gained more reputation till now as a military theorist than a military professional. The fact that Clausewitz’s work is still frenetically researched demonstrates that it is found relevant even today in contemporary times. Also, my opinion is that I appreciate and enjoy Clausewitz’s theoretical approaches to war. I believe that he has con veyed what it takes to really understand the phenomenon of war through his insightful theories which can be useful to anybody even today in the modern times. According to Clausewitz, â€Å"war is served by many activities† (2008, p. ... In his theory about means and end, he favors strategy over tactics. His concept of tactics is a confluence of two streams, means (fighting forces) and ends (victory) suggesting that better trained fighting forces can lead to victory if they are more experienced at seeing and processing information on the battlefield. This is because once the means are properly developed, the purposes of the war get clearer, and the desired objectives can be reached without unnecessary delays due to uncertainty (fog). However, in strategy the means is victory and the end is things which can help to reestablish peace. Just victory is not important, reestablishment of peace should also be a desired end. I find Clausewitz’s theoretical concepts to be both thought-provoking and acutely insightful because he digs with acute intelligence into a variety of meanings associated with friction and means and ends, and the best part is that every meaning holds something captivating to reflect. Clausewitz ho lds the position that the rate of probability is especially high in a situation like war because everything is uncertain. Here, he goes against earlier war theorists who attempted to astutely assess the war performance by using hard and fast rules. For this purpose, the earlier theorists concentrated only on factors which could be calculated like the war supplies, number of participants (soldiers), interior lines etc. They forgot to assess the conduct of war by considering factors which do not have fixed values and cannot be calculated. It is the work of those theorists which cannot be considered relevant today because the times have changed and there is no room for those inflexible concepts on war now. Clausewitz’s work on war in reference to its relevance today

Challenges Faced By Socrates

Challenges Faced By Socrates Socrates developed this philosophy when he himself was facing some challenges as he was facing trial for corrupting young people and undermining the state religion. Socrates once said that the unexamined life is not worth living. In this he was Socrates wanted forward various issues including the independent of mind or autonomy, if an individual does not reflect on their values and life and just living life like they are going through a motion. One behaves like a mere cog in the machinery of that is the human universe. When we have experiences whether good or bad we should think about them and try to find out why they are happening to us. One should always question their personal actions, what drives them, and we should remodel our character into a way we feel it is the most appropriate and not what others or situations think. A life that has not been examined has no author, for the individual did not live his life but mere followed the force of nature or others. Therefore it is very important for an individual to be examined for it helps them to find their place in the society. According to Socrates the human life is supposed to be for one to achieve both personal and spiritual growth. An individual will be able to understand their true nature when they examine and reflect on the life they are living. By having an examination on the life we live we will better understand our pattern of behavior. By deeply contemplation on our life we will better understand our subconscious which is what controls our life. Therefore if we do not make time to understand our subconscious we will unconscious be living a repetitive life with no meaning. Examining our life relates to philosophy as it means we have to take time to study our behavior and find ways of improving this behavior. 2. Plato in the discussion that he made on the myth of the cave, he distinguished on aspects of awareness which are knowledge and opinion. In the myth of the cave he described how one has been deeply chained inside a cave. As they are chained in the cave their cannot see each other and they have restricted vision and what they can only see is the wall in the cave and which shows shadows from statues belonging to animals and various objects emanating from a burning fire. One of the chained individuals escaped from their captivity in the cave to the light of the day. After escaping the person sees real world for the first time and goes back to those still in the cave and informs them that they have only been seeing appearances and shadows and if they fight to free themselves they will see the real world out there. The environment in the cave which has appearances that are shadowy it shows to for Plato is the appearance that is there in the physical world. The escape to the world full of the sun outside of the cave is a symbol of transitioning into a world that is real, where things are full and perfect, and there are real forms, this are the true aspects of knowledge. Plato argued that Forms are arranged according to hierarchy. With the top Form being the form that is good, according to the myth of the cave is the sun. The sun which acts as the form of good helps to explain on how an individual becomes aware of how things they are the way they are or how they came to be. The cave stands for the world which is in our imagination, the in the shadows cave shows of how at passive state that we are at when thinking. Those who decide to learn in the cave are the individuals who have empirical knowledge and are able to make predictions. The knowledge that they have is not useful but a shadow. Educati on is only important if it can be able to free someone from their bondage. Every individual has an ability to think and If does not utilize this it is because he is held by chains. 3. Elizabeth Spelman once claimed that, women have been portrayed as bodily being. By portraying the woman this way she is denied her status that belongs to her as a human being. According to Rene Descartes who is accredited to have developed the theory of Cartesian dualism, he argued of distinction between the mind and the body and they are also separate. Cartesian dualism states that the thoughts of a man are a reflection of his beliefs, values, conditions, experiences, and development. The Cartesian dualism that speaks of the independence and separation of the mind and body perpetuates a sexist beliefs and behaviours. This is because it privileges the cognitive and intellectually is represented. This masculine discourses; Spelman argued that it works in reproducing a disembodied way of thinking which blinds people on how a normal world is. Spelman argued that the viewing of the woman as a property or a sex product undermines who the woman is. Elizabeth Spelman the Cartesian dualism is used to justify why the women are subordination especially in fields such as Politics. The stereotyping of women is a dangerous aspect in the society, judging a woman based on her body is an affront to the women. The theory tends to give certain roles to women, like that they have a certain position in the society and they are field that are specifically for them and others they should not venture into. They are seen as models and not engineers. 4. Aristotle refuted Plato Theory of Ideas arguing that, that the existence of various Ideas that contradict themselves and deny there being a possibility of a negation. He also argued that the portraying of Ideas was an empty metaphors and finally that the theory used various impermanent abstractions that created perception. The theory by Plato was meant to establish that the knowledge of reality was. Aristotle considered the argument to be full of inconsistencies and he believed that reality depended on correlations of other elements. These ideas, Plato believed were self contained absolutes and are permanent and they help in establishing what knowledge is and how it is attained by use of human thought. Plato also viewed Ideas as good standards to which it can be used to judge human endeavor and at the top of hierarchy of ideas leads is that of Good. Also the theory argued that that the states of being are based or dependent on the interaction of number of Forms of existence, also the objectivity of knowledge and therefore more real, it also argued that only the processes that are from nature are valid entities. However, Aristotle attacks this theory on the grounds that Platos arguments are inconclusive either his assertions are not al all cogent. Aristotle says, or his arguments lead to contradictory conclusions. Aristotle claimed that the argument by Plato makes one to conclude that those entities that might be man-made and the negation of great ideas can exist like from non good in when in opposition to good. This works in contradicting the belief by Plato which was that only natural objects can be used by unto themselves, that they are independent of the subjective experiences of human. Aristotle argued that Ideas cannot be abstractions but they are duplicates experiences that are witnessed by individuals everyday in their da ily life. Aristotle meant that Platos idea which stated that Ideas are not tangible to the subjective human experiences is perfect entities, has no grounds, since all standards are set by the perception and ordinary human activity. 5. Behaviorism is a theory of that believes that that all human behaviors are learnt or acquired through the process of conditioning. The process of conditioning happens when an individual interacts with the environment. Behaviorism experts believe that behavior can be effectively studied in an observable and systematic way without the consideration of the internal mental states in the subject of which the behavior is being studied. Behavior theorists believe that learning is just but the acquisition of behavior and this acquisition is conditioned by the environment that the person lives in. there are two methods of conditioning, namely the classical conditioning and the operant conditioning. According to dualism there are number a number of uses of thought. The idea of dualism believes that, for everything, there are two options or categories of principles or things. A dualist will believe that there is Good and Evil. The dualist belief that the two things or principles, are independent equal opposing forces in the world. In the mind philosophy, dualism theory believes that the mind and body is radically different thing. It is a theory that tends to say that everything comes from the mind and the body and that both are very different and distinct. The spirit, mind, or soul is thought to be the conscious and it help to show the self using the brain. The computational theory of mind argues that mind of human beings should be seen as a system for processing information. It also argues that thoughts are a form of computation. I prefer behaviorism as I belief that all behaviors that people exhibit are based on the environment that they live in. I strongly believe that behavior is learned by people. 6. Berkeley argued that the position of idealism can be held without any contradiction. Berkeley tried to portray realism as absurd, since it needed some concepts that cannot be conceptualized in reality. Therefore Berkeley made a conclusion that idealism was necessary, and the only theory we should work to understand. Realism is the ontological position which believes that there exists some things that which are neither in our minds or they are ideas in minds and idealism is the ontological position that believes that everything which exists it exists as either as an idea in a mind or a mind. Anti realist believe that what cannot be observed is not real. They insist that people can only understand anything if they come to understand the circumstances it is the way it is. They deny the objective reality that is of entities. They also deny the verifying of statement that are transcendent on a certain entity whether true or false. Berkeley and anti realist have several things in common which include that he did not believe in realism but believed in idealism which he considered to be essential to people. He argued that for a concept to be concrete it has to be observable. This is the same as what anti realist hold. 7. Jean-Paul Sartre, made the phrase that existence precedes essence. In the past it was assumed that nature or essence was more important eternal than existence. The phrase that existence precedes essence means, that humans and reality, exist before there are any morals or values. An individual is born with nothing in their mind. Also human beings do not have any universal or form of predetermined principles that are common to all. Sartre made an argument of there being two kinds of being, being-in-itself which demonstrated as being complete, fixed, and there being no reason of it there, it just is, it works to describe the external objects. The other being is showed as being dependent on the way it previously existed. It is fixed, absolute and works to describe the state of humanity. There being no preformed essence or a clear what to be human is, an individual is tasked to form their own concept about existence this can be achieved by an individual ensuring that they assert control and show responsibility for their choices and acts. Human beings gain their essence by their choices and actions that they make as individuals. It by living that an individual is able to define who truly they are. By life that we experience every day, we are involved in a process that shapes our identity. Since there is no set moral code that has been set for us to abide with, then there people as individuals have a fundamental freedom to ensure that they create their personal system of belief. 8. The ontological argument is an argument on the existence of God. The argument is based on reason and intuition alone. As per the argument, it states that that one should not look for any physical evidence to show that God exists. But by merely thinking about it we can realize that God exists. In philosophy this argument is referred to as priori argument. According to the ontological argument, human beings are wise enough to know claims false without even by looking into this claims and to find out. The argument claims that the thought that there is no God and does not exist is an absurd thought. According to the ontological argument, human beings can easily be able to decide that it is false or wrong to claim that there is no God; this decision can be made without one spending his time to look at the details of the existence of God. This is compared to one knowing what a triangle is which means it is obvious that it is impossible to have a four-sided triangle. The argument states that by one knowing the meaning of God it would be impossible for one to contemplate of God being non-existence. Descartes argued that it was impossible for people to demonstrating there being or existence of God who he considered to be supreme and a perfect being. Since human beings supposes and conceive the idea that there exists a supreme and perfect being. Therefore because we all have an idea of the supreme and perfect being, it is therefore imperative that we should all make a conclusion that this supreme perfect being does surely exists. 9. There being evil and a lot of suffering in the world poses a big challenge for one to belief in the existence of a God who is perfect. The problem of evil is an argument which argues that a God who is all-knowing, all powerful, and who is perfectly good should not permit any form of suffering or evil to happen. The world today is full of countless aspects of people suffering and there being too much evil.   The facts on the presence of evil and people suffering do conflict with the claim by the orthodox theists that there is a God who is perfectly good. This challenge by this conflict is known as the problem of evil. Some argue that God could have a reason that is morally enough reason for him to allow there being some evils to happen, by doing this he ensures that a big good is seen or comes out of the evil. But those against argue that God should only permit evil or suffering as it should be necessary so as to attain a bigger good. But when people look at the world, there are a lot of prevalent incidences of pointless evils that has no bigger good that comes out as a result. They also argue that the existence of pointless evil provide a strong case that God does not exist. Philosophers and theologians have worked to develop theodicies, which are responses that are meant to explain the argument from evil and help people to still have a belief in a God that is all-knowing, all-powerful and perfect and good. Some state that God allows people to undergo pointless evil for reason that are above human comprehension. 10. Pascal Wager argued that that is safe to believe that there is God since if later you learn that you were wrong you will have lost nothing. Also if one doesnt believe in God and it turns out to be incorrect, they will go to hell. He therefore believed it was not wise to be an atheist. I personally do not believe in this argument as it has several flaws. The argument doe not tell of which religion one should follow. Since there are many religions that are mutually exclusive and contradict each other example is Christianity and Islam. Therefore one might end up avoiding worshiping the wrong God thus avoiding the wrong hell and eventually end up in hell. Example is in both Christianity and Islam they both belief in there being hell yet their practices are very different and they both worship God, which God should one follow? Another flaw is that the argument that the person who the bet losses everything, it might be that he loses nothing. If an individual puts his bet on the wrong god, the True God just may decide to punish the person who bet wrong for his foolish behavior. Also the True God might be an independent God who respects the right of other people believing in what they reason rationally, therefore he does not pick on the bet. I also have a problem with somebody deciding to believe in a god since they think they have made a choice which will offer them a lot of benefits and less danger. This might be a problem as the god you believe in might have a problem in one believing in it so as to benefit by being allowed into heaven or not to be punished in hell. The god might be fair but on the choices that people made, were they selfish choice?

Edwin Hubble :: essays research papers

Edwin Hubble was a man who changed our view of the Universe. In 1929 he showed that galaxies are moving away from us with a speed proportional to their distance. The explanation is simple, but revolutionary: the Universe is expanding. Hubble was born in Missouri in 1889. His family moved to Chicago in 1898, where at High School he was a promising, though not exceptional, pupil. He was more remarkable for his athletic ability, breaking the Illinois State high jump record. At university too he was an accomplished sportsman playing for the University of Chicago basketball team. He won a Rhodes scholarship to Oxford where he studied law. It was only some time after he returned to the US that he decided his future lay in astronomy. In the early 1920s Hubble played a key role in establishing just what galaxies are. It was known that some spiral nebulae (fuzzy clouds of light on the night sky) contained individual stars, but there was no consensus as to whether these were relatively small collections of stars within our own galaxy, the 'Milky Way' that stretches right across the sky, or whether these could be separate galaxies, or 'island universes', as big as our own galaxy but much further away. In 1924 Hubble measured the distance to the Andromeda nebula, a faint patch of light with about the same apparent diameter as the moon, and showed it was about a hundred thousand times as far away as the nearest stars. It had to be a separate galaxy, comparable in size our own Milky Way but much further away. Hubble was able to measure the distances to only a handful of other galaxies, but he realised that as a rough guide he could take their apparent brightness as an indication of their distance. The speed with which a galaxy was moving toward or away from us was relatively easy to measure due to the Doppler shift of their light. Just as a sound of a racing car becomes lower as it speeds away from us, so the light from a galaxy becomes redder. Though our ears can hear the change of pitch of the racing car engine our eyes cannot detect the tiny red-shift of the light, but with a sensitive spectrograph Hubble could determine the redshift of light from distant galaxies. The observational data available to Hubble by 1929 was sketchy, but whether guided by inspired instinct or outrageous good fortune, he correctly divined a straight line fit between the data points showing the redshift was proportional to the distance.

College Student Stress Coping

College students facing academic, social, and other stresses such as finances and how to cope with them. The most common stress most college students face is the stress from the work load that is common in a higher education system. This is the major challenge, and you will be facing without the close guidance you may have previously enjoyed from a teacher or parent; Social stress seems to be more prominent with underclassmen leaving home and there support structure from home but can affect any college student.Most students find that the number one cause of stress for them is financially trying to juggle a full load, and work full time to support yourself and for other students pay for school. Academic stress seems to be what cause the biggest problem for most students. There are some things you can do if you would like to lower your stress level and make student life better. First thing you should do is get the right information from the very beginning. How many lectures, seminars o r laboratory sessions are you supposed to be attending?With your assignments make sure you know exactly what you are being asked to do? How many words you’re expected to write and what the deadline is for handing it in. Also try to set up your own space for academic’s to make it easier to focus and concentrate, if you have a noisy roommate try to find a place in the library or even a local coffee shop to frequent. These suggestions will help lower your academics stress which will make life easier for the college student.Social stress for college students is something else that is very common especially in new college students. Most social stress comes from trying to fit it or even trying to create a new social network because in most case’s this is the first time away from home and away from your entire support structure and comfort zone. With social stress one of the most important things to remember is to try and stay involved in different activities at school and get involved with different organizations on campus to meet new people.When getting involved with the organization’s on campus you’ll meet new friends and become more socially outgoing which will help greatly with social stress. Reducing the amount of social stress in college students, will lead to a more enjoyable and positive experience. Financial stress tends to be tohe root of most students problems whether it’s from overspending, lack of proper guidance, peer pressure, inexperience or many other factors. As a result just about everyone is bogged down with large debts increasing day by day.As students many have tried different things to cut down expense but still no luck. There are many ways to help lift the financial stress for college students like taking federal or private loans, grants and scholarships, and working during the summer vacation. By taking federal or private loans you get to choose the best one that is suitable for your need, if you dec ide to go for a private one then do enough research to make sure you’re not at a loss and end up paying more instead of benefitting from it.Grants and scholarships are another great ideas because these will help lift the burden of some financial stress. When applying for grants and scholarships keep in mind these are offered free by federal organizations for the benefit of students. Make sure to take advantage of the situation but you have to prove worthy for these aids. Getting summer jobs will also help lift some of that financial stress because you can do it in your off time and not stress with studying or school work but catch up and save some money!The best ways for college students to cope with the stress of being away from home, social stress, and financial stress. Academic stress seems to be one of the most common among students. Most college students find that the added freedom of being away from the structure at home and the more difficult classes to be extremely st ressful. Just remember try and create your own space for studying with a desk and a quiet place, if you have a noisy roommate find a nice place in the library or a nice local coffee shop to visit.Social stress also seems to be a major problem with college students. Trying to fit in and make new friends after leaving there comfort zone and support structure can be difficult. When starting at college try and get involved in activities to get you out and have a good time. Another great thing to do is get into some organizations to help meet new people and even become more outgoing to make the college experience more fun and less stress. Financial stress seems to be the biggest burden for college students trying to survive on your own and worrying about how you will pay for chool. Remember federal and private loans are a great way to lift stress off you but just do your research and find the one that will work best for your needs. Grants and scholarships are the best thing for most stud ents because they are offered for free from federal organizations but you must prove yourself for these aids Summer jobs are great for students who want to make a little extra cash on the side and lift the stress and worry of college off their mind. B y following some of these tips you are sure to reduce some stress in your everyday college life.

Summary – Automotive Supply Synchronization

Operations Management â€Å"Automotive Supply Chain Synchronization† Summary The article, â€Å"Automotive Supply Chain Synchronization† by Matthias Berlit, Ulrich Dorndorf, and Hans Jurgen Zimmerman, discussed the importance of logistics planning in the management of automotive supply chains, and namely the role the transport management system SynroTESS played in the optimization of supply chains for Audi and Volkswagen (VW) Mexico.The article began by explaining that the unregulated inbound, internal and outbound movements within a given automotive supply chain were not only inefficient, but also led to significant wasted time evidenced by the queuing of vehicles and the congestion that results from waiting. The authors argued that this waste of resources could be overcome by the proper synchronization of movements with the use of a computer program called SyncroTESS. SyncroTESS was developed by a German IT company called INFORM and was described as a system that â₠¬Å"intelligently synchronizes time-critical transport operations. The system is immensely capable of optimizing operations like the allocation of material handling resources within a plant to scheduling the trucks used for internal and inter-factory movements. The authors then went on to provide two case studies in which SyncroTESS was able to successfully optimize the synchronization of auto supply chains for Audi and VW Mexico. The first case study involved the Audi Ingolstadt production facility in Germany. The Ingolstadt factory is Audi’s largest production facility and produces roughly 850 built to order cars from its assembly lines daily.As we learned from the Marshall Fisher Harvard Business Review article â€Å"What is the right supply chain for your product,† these built to order vehicles are considered an innovative product must employ a market responsive supply chain to meet it’s demand properly. In order to optimize this sort of supply chain, the Syn croTESS system manages â€Å"the internal material flow† of at least 3 days worth of stock, â€Å"optimizes the execution of 60,000 internal transport orders per day,† including â€Å"up to 3,000 stock-in and 4,000 stock-out movement per day† and â€Å"the flow and transport of materials from the parts warehouse to the assembly line. As of 2006, the SyncroTESS system has been fully integrated into Audi’s IT system and is still currently in use. In fact, SyncroTESS’s responsibilities have been expanded to include the scheduling of about 500 inbound truck movements a day. The second case study showcased the impact of the SyncroTESS system in the optimization of controlling finished auto inventory in the yards of VW Mexico. The vehicle yards in Mexico distribute about 350,000 vehicles to dealers worldwide yearly.The inventory is specifically tailored to store 2 types of production vehicles; built to order, hence innovative products, for the European market and built to stock, otherwise known as functional products, for the Mexican and North American markets. Although VW Mexico was dealing with essentially two types of products, the fact that these products were already completed and ready for shipment, this case study focused on SyncroTESS’s ability to handle an efficient supply chain for otherwise functional products.VW Mexico successfully implemented the optimization of its supply chain by marrying the SyncroTESS transport management system with VW’s proprietary TOMCADS system. This action allowed VW to rely on a single all encompassing logistical operation system and eliminated the confusion created from the use of the 3rd party logistic providers (3PLs) of the past. SyncroTESS and TOMCADS worked in concert through a process called â€Å"intelligent yard management. VW’s TOMCADS system would inform SyncroTESS of a vehicle’s impending arrival. At that time, the car would be inspected and â€Å"in the event of any defects† the car would be â€Å"returned to production and SyncroTESS (would) re-plan the car’s route allowing for repairs. † Otherwise, the synchronization system would work to optimize the flow of the vehicle inventory from each yard in great detail; from the flow of each vehicle within specific yards, to the order in which vehicle would be loaded as cargo to reduce wasted movement.The successful impact of the synchronization of transport management systems was made evident when Bjorn Beckmann, head of Logistics Planning group at VW Mexico, explained that, â€Å"As a result of the (now) large number of cars leaving and entering our operations, most cars do not remain longer than 1. 5 days in the yards. † This lower lead-time in delivering the finished inventory is beneficial to both responsive and efficient supply chains, satisfying the demand of both types of production vehicles. The authors would then go on to describe how SyncroTESS has evolved to nclude GPS technology to further track the movement of inventory in real time. The full integration of the logistical system has allowed VW Mexico to create a more complete picture of its inventory flow. In fact, In addition to Audi and VW, BMW and Daimler have also adopted synchronization technology to optimize the execution of their supply chain with a typical â€Å"break-even period of two years. † The conclusion drawn from the authors essentially reinforced Fisher’s stance that the implementation of the proper supply chain for a given product, despite the cost, is ultimately more beneficial to a company than focusing on cost alone.

Legal and Ethical Issues that Students Should Understand

Legal and Ethical Issues that Students Should Understand Introduction Business experts have constantly criticized the inability of colleges to address the ever increasing gap of what the market needs and what is actually taught in business schools.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Legal and Ethical Issues that Students Should Understand specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Additionally, in a period of ethical lapses, moral and values uncertainty, selfishness of the free market economy and scandals connected to greed and unethical behaviors in organizations, business schools, as the main source of future businesspeople, are additionally blamed for much of the unethical behaviors in the market place. For this reason, business schools are under pressure to cultivate a strong sense of socially responsible management among their graduates and reconsider their position as a moral force in shaping future businesspeople with the capability of making ethical decisions (Baucus, Caryn, 2005). The rising interest in the conduct of business students has been the subject of various studies. Indeed, recent research in this area established that the probability of business students engaging in academic dishonesty was higher than that of their non-business peers. An example of this is a survey featuring over 15,000 students which showed that business students formed the bulk of those who cheated to attain higher grades (Light, 2008). Additionally, studies have proved that most business students believe that they require unethical behavior for them to be able to effectively bring to completion their degrees. Ideally, the beliefs and values of most students are affected by the environmental background in which they grow up. Indeed, various countries and geographic regions and companies, develop different ethical values, principles, norms and individual moral orientations. An example of this can be found in the words of Light (2008) who in a study established that Americans responded to bribery cases in a more ethical manner than their counterparts from Greece.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Business Ethics In this paper, ethics will be defined as the principles and values that determine satisfactory conduct in business organizations. Customers, competitors, government regulations, interest parties, and the society, as well as the moral principles and values of each individual determine the acceptability of behavior in business. An example of this can be seen from the example of Enron, which became one of the largest ethical disasters in the 21st century. Two previous CEOs of Enron, Ken Lay and Jeff Skilling, were found guilty on all charges of colluding to hide the company’s financial situation (Ronald, Johannes, 2003). While determining the case, the presiding judge said the defendants could be found guil ty of consciously avoiding knowing about unlawful activity at the organization. Many other senior managers including Andy Fastow, the Chief Financial Officer of the organization were found guilty of misbehavior and are currently doing time in prison. Ideally, the collapse of Enron took many layers of management pushing the buttons and contentment on the part of employees who saw mistakes being committed but chose to do nothing about it (Ronald, Johannes, 2003). Indeed, Enron is not alone when it comes to condoning unethical behavior in organizations. Most unethical actions within organizations are propped up by an organizational culture that encourages employees to twist the rules (Ronald, Johannes, 2003). Recognizing Ethical Issues in Business â€Å" Learning to identify ethical issues is one of the most crucial steps in comprehending business ethics. An ethical issue according to Ronald Johannes, (2003) is a problem, situation, or opportunity that is identifiable and calls for someone to choose from among various actions that may be interpreted as right or wrong, ethical or unethical. In business, such a choice usually entails weighing monetary profit in opposition to what an individual considers appropriate conduct.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Legal and Ethical Issues that Students Should Understand specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The best way to evaluate the ethics of a decision is to examine a situation from the perspective of a customer or competitor. Some of the pertinent issues where the question of ethics might arise are: Should liquid-diet manufacturers make uncorroborated claims regarding their products? Should an engineer agree to divulge her previous employer’s trade secrets to guarantee that she lands a better job with a competitor? Should a salesperson leave out facts about a products poor safety record in his demonstration to a customer? Such questions necessitate the decision maker to weigh up the ethics of his or her choice (Ronald, Johannes, 2003). Many business issues may appear straightforward and easy to determine on the surface, but in actuality they are very complicated. A person usually needs several years experience in business to comprehend what is ethical or adequate and that is why business students should endeavor to learn the laws governing business when they are still in school. For example, if one is a salesperson, when does giving out a ‘gift’ – such as season football tickets – to a client become a kickback rather than just a sales observation? As it is, there are no clear and easy answers to such a question. However, the dimension of the deal, the history of personal relationships within the organization in question, as well as a host of many other factors may establish if others will judge the matter as acceptable. Companies across the United States are starting to prohibit access t o Internet-video services at the workplace. At issue is the theft of time by employees who utilize You Tube and MySpace for two hours on average each workday (Light, 2008). Another issue is the use of company resources to give individual internet admission. In order to understand some of the ethical issues that students should expect to encounter in the future, this research paper will deal with some of them in this section. Ethical issues are more complicated now than in the past. The immense number of news-format investigative programs has heightened consumer and employee awareness of managerial misbehavior.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On top of this, the large amount of pay TV and internet resources has improved the awareness of ethical problems in the society. A survey carried out by Light (2008) involving more than 3,400 U.S. employees concluded that workers witness numerous instances of ethical misconduct in their organizations. (Light, 2008). The most common types of identified misconduct in the private sector were putting one’s own interests ahead of that of the organization, abusive behavior, and peddling falsehood to employees. One of the main causes of unethical behavior in organizations is excessively aggressive fiscal or business objectives. Majority of these issues have to do with decisions that business executives handle on day-to-day basis. Ideally, it is not possible to discuss every ethical issue that rises in the business place. However, discussing a few of them can help students to realize some of the ethical problems that they will have to deal with in their future workplace. Majority of the ethical issues in business can be classified in the context of their relation with offensive and menacing behavior, conflicts of interest, fairness and truthfulness, communications, and business dealings (Light, 2008). Abusive or intimidating behavior is classified as one of the most ethical issues that employees have to deal with in the workplace. These concepts can refer to anything from physical threats, false allegations, being irritating, using swear words, verbal abuse, shouting, cruelty, to perverseness, and the meaning of these words can differ from one person to another. Abusive behavior can be placed on a scale from minor disturbance to an interruption of the workplace. For example, what one person may term as shouting might be the manner of normal speech for another person. Courtesy in our culture is a concern, and the workplace is no exception. The productivity level of most organizations has been reduced by the time spent unraveling insulting relationships (Light, 2 008). Abusive behavior is hard to manage and judge due to cultural diversity and lifestyle. What does it mean to act in a profane manner? The question that one should ask themselves is if profanity is only related to specific terms or other related phrases that are commonly used in today’s business world. If one is using words that are normal in his language but others consider them to be abusive, does this constitute to unethical behavior? Within the concept of abusive language, intent should be a concern. If the employee was trying to express a compliment but the comment was construed as abusive, then it was most likely a mistake. What students should understand is that the way they will frame their words (word intonation) while dealing with clients in their future workplace will be important (Baucus, Caryn, 2005). Another ethical/legal aspect that is most likely to crop up in the workplace is that of bullying. Bullying is linked to a hostile workplace when an individual o r group is targeted and is threatened, disparaged, orally abused, or overly censured. Bullying may give rise to what some consider a hostile environment, a term commonly linked to sexual harassment. Although sexual harassment has legal redress, bullying has little or no legal recourse at the present. Bullying is a widespread problem in America and can give rise to psychological damage that can as a result give rise to health endangering consequences to the victim. According to a study conducted by Baucus Caryn (2005), 34 percent of U.S. workers which is close to 54 million Americans have been bullied at one time and 12 percent of workers have witnessed cases of bullying. Although bullying might not have a legal recourse, employees should be wary of practicing it since it might be misconstrued as sexual harassment which definitely has legal redress. Conflict of Interest Conflict of interest which is one of the most prevalent ethical issue identified by employees, comes to be when a person must decide whether to advance his or her own individual interests or those of others. For example, a manager in an organization is required to make sure that the company makes profits so that the stakeholders receive value on their investment. Simply put, the manager’s first responsibility is to the investors. If the manager instead makes decisions that make him/her to accumulate more power or money without advancing the cause of the company, then that manager has a conflict of interest meaning that he is acting to build himself at the expense of the organization and is not carrying out his responsibilities as an employee. In order to avoid conflicts of interest, employees should be able to detach their personal financial interests with that of the organization (David, Max, 1996). As discussed earlier in this paper, it is regarded as improper to give or receive bribes, payments, gifts, or special favors with the intention of swaying the outcome of a decision. A bribe is considered a conflict of interest because it benefits an individual at the cost of an organization or community. Companies that conduct business overseas should understand that bribes are a significant ethical issue and are in fact not allowed in many countries. An example can be seen from a case where three former executives of IBM Korea were jailed in Seoul after they were convicted of bribing business associates to win orders for computer parts (Light, 2008). While bribery is a serious concern in many countries, it is more rampant in some countries than in others (Kellerman, 2004). Fairness and Honesty Fairness and honesty are core business ethics and relay the general values of decision makers. At a minimum, business persons are expected to adhere to all set laws and policies. However, above obeying the law, employees are expected not to cause harm to customers, employees, clients, or even competitors intentionally through fraud, distortion, compulsion, or prejudice. Honesty and fairness can be linked to how the employees utilize the organization resources. A survey carried out in the U.S. showed that more than two thirds of workers have taken office supplies at one time to use in their individual needs (David, Max, 1996). In the same survey, 97 percent of the employees said that they did not consider taking office supplies for their personal use as something dishonest. Additionally, the same survey showed that 3.7 percent have taken items like keyboards, software and memory sticks. Regardless of this, an employee should be aware of policies regarding taking items and recognize how these decisions relate to ethical behavior (Krawiec, 2000). One characteristic of fairness relates to competition. Although many laws have been formulated to promote competition and make monopolistic practices illegal, companies sometimes acquire control over markets by applying questionable practices that harm competition. Bullying can also take place between companies tha t are strong contenders. Even respected companies such as Intel have at one time been accused of monopolistic bullying. A competitor, Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), claimed in a court case that 38 companies including Dell and Sony were strong-arming potential customers into buying Intel chips except those marketed by AMD. In the case, AMD is seeking billions of dollars in a lawsuit that might take years to take legal action (Kellerman, 2004). Conclusion An ethical issue is an identifiable problem, situation, or opportunity that calls for an individual or company to select from among several actions that have to be weighed up as right or wrong. Ethical issues can be classified in the context of their association with conflicts of interest, fairness and honesty, communication, and business dealings. Businesses can cultivate ethical behavior by workers by reducing their prospect of engaging in misconduct. Formal codes of ethics, ethical policies, and ethics training forums lessen the fr equency of unethical behavior by notifying employees what is expected of them and punishing those who fail to obey. References Baucus, M. Caryn, L. (2005). Designing Ethical Organizations: Avoiding the Long-Term Negative Effects of Rewards and Punishments. Journal of Business Ethics 56 (4), 355. David, M. Max, H. (1996). Ethical Leadership and the Psychology of Decision Making. MIT Sloan Management Review 37(2), 76. Kellerman, B. (2004). Bad Leadership: What It Is, How It Happens, Why It Matters. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Krawiec, K. (2000). Accounting for Greed: Unraveling the Rogue Trader Mystery. Oregon Law Review 79 (2), 309-10. Light, P. (2008). How Americans View Charities: A Report on Charitable Confidence. Washington: Brookings Institution. Ronald, R. Johannes, B. (2003). Enron Ethics (Or Culture Matters More Than Codes). Journal of Business Ethics 45 (3), 243 – 252.

buy custom Systems Support and Treatment Integrity essay

buy custom Systems Support and Treatment Integrity essay Systems support is the continued provision of material and services necessary for the improvement and use of a system in the course if its lifecycle. Treatment integrity refers to the state of implementing a program as intended in order to evaluate it properly. Applied behavior analysis is a science that supports the application of modern behavioral learning theory to alter behaviors (Lavie Sturmey, 2002). According to Lavie Sturmey (2002), behavior analysts focus on the use of observable relationship of behavior rather than the use of hypothetical concepts to the environment. This discussion will consider the role systems support and treatment integrity in applied behaviors analysis, as well as training and procedural integrity. Applied behavior analysis finds systems support important because of a good system for altering individual behaviors. This is because systems support ensures continued provision of materials and services for a better system. Treatment integrity ensures proper evaluation of a program, thus benefiting applied behavior analysis, which depends on the program for behavior change. Therefore, applied behavior analysis has a close relationship both to systems support and treatment integrity because the two are significant in improving the required program (Lavie Sturmey, 2002). It is important to give a thorough training to the staff to ensure that they effectively implement assessment process (Wallace Doney, 2004). Assessing the procedural integrity of assessment procedures is very crucial because it ensures that independent variables undergo implementation according to the written procedures. Procedural integrity refers to the extent that the independent variables undergo a precise implementation as the written procedures. High levels of integrity result from accurately and clearly written procedures. Procedural integrity depends on training because the staff that has undergone a thorough training will ensure accurate implementation of a program according to the written procedures (Wallace Doney, 2004). Training takes place before the actual implementation of a program. The non-specialist staff finds training as very crucial. Buy custom Systems Support and Treatment Integrity essay

Struthiomimus - Facts and Figures

Struthiomimus - Facts and Figures Name: Struthiomimus (Greek for ostrich mimic); pronounced STROO-thee-oh-MIME-us Habitat: Plains of western North America Historical Period: Late Cretaceous (75 million years ago) Size and Weight: About 10 feet long and 300 pounds Diet: Plants and meat Distinguishing Characteristics: Ostrich-like posture; long tail and hind legs About Struthiomimus A close relative of Ornithomimus, which it closely resembled, Struthiomimus (ostrich mimic) galloped across the plains of western North America during the late Cretaceous period. This ornithomimid (bird mimic) dinosaur was distinguished from its more famous cousin by its slightly longer arms and stronger fingers, but because of the position of its thumbs it couldnt grasp food quite as easily. Like other ornithomimids, Struthiomimus likely pursued an opportunistic diet, feeding on plants, small animals, insects, fish or even carrion (when a kill was left unattended by other, larger theropods). This dinosaur may have been capable of short sprints of 50 miles per hour, but had a less taxing cruising speed in the 30 to 40 mph range.

Lethal Injection by Vilhelm Sjostrom Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Lethal Injection by Vilhelm Sjostrom - Essay Example Cartoon images have a general appeal to the public and he conveys a general public image by manipulating them to render his own message. He abducted Ronald, the marketing strategy of McDonald, and asked them to reveal their code of ethics. On non-compliance, Jani Leinonen and his friends destroyed Ronald and had to spend a few days in jail. He and his friends call themselves the Food Liberation Army (Leinonen). The picture in question is the right opposite of what Scooby-Doo is on screen. Scooby-Doo is a scared-to-death character who gets lucky each time there is to solve. He runs away from the slightest sign of danger and is a huge fan of food. The painting is part of the â€Å"True Patriot† Series. Scooby-Doo is a ‘lucky’ patriot. He has to be infused with special IVRs to get him to be that special patriot and stop being the scared character that he is. To make him a brave dog, he needs that extra shot. The picture’s name is also very interesting. For Sco oby the injection is lethal to say the least. He enjoys his laid-back life style. He avoids any confrontations and believes in a blissful and content life. To become a patriot he will have to leave all his pleasures and work more as an individual. Be a more proactive member of his team. If he becomes a patriot his skills will be more useful not just as a big dog with his team, but also a sleuth who has good mystery solving skills. Looking at the picture and at Jani Leinonen’s way of life if is not difficult to draw similarities. Jani Leinonen.

Business Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 3

Business Ethics - Essay Example In this case, there are no ifs and buts. However, a close look reveals the fact that applying Kant’s principles into the modern business world is a tough task due to many reasons. The first such issue that requires attention is the fact that Kant proposes that the same maxim can be applied to two moral dilemmas. However, it seems that at times, there are issues of conflicting duties. For example, the United States in the 1990s witnessed the shutting down and massive layoffs of many enterprises. A closer look reveals the fact it becomes impossible to assess this situation using Kant’s ideology. To illustrate, the Kant’s philosophy would argue that the employees, in such cases, are being used as mere means to enhance the shareholder wealth, and hence, it is immoral from the part of the company to shut down. If someone agrees that it is immoral from the part of the company to shut down, and that the company should run irrespective of the consequences of that action, the issue gets more complicated. For example, the company is showing injustice towards its shareholders. In other words, when the company resorts to showing morality towards the employees by avoiding layoffs, it fails to show the same morality towards its shareholders. Thus, it becomes evident that Kant’s theory of categorical imperative is not absolute in nature. Yet another example is the forced retirement of employees in a company so that the company can pass through a financial crisis by reducing expenses. It is very evident that according to the widely accepted notion in the business field, it is justifiable to crucify a few innocent if it does good to the majority. However, the Kant ideology is in stark contradiction with this ideology. In both the cases, it seems difficult to find a solution that can do justice to all the stakeholders. However, a solution to this kind of issues comes from the notion of open book management. This method was developed and implemented by Jack Stack at the Springfield Manufacturing Company. According to Schuster, Carpenter and Kane (227), under the open book management system, the company informs its employees about the financial situation of the company on a regular basis. Thus, when the employees possess sufficient knowledge about the performance and financial situation of the company, they too have an equal responsibility in the running of the company. It is very evident that in open book management, employees get a chance to take wise decisions about their performance and career. So, if the company faces a situation like layoff, the level of suspicion and confusion will be far less, and sometimes, the committed employees may propose to work for a limited wage to face the crisis. Anyhow, it is highly unlikely from the part of employees to allege that they are deceived by the company. Thus, it becomes evident that a proper understanding of the Kant ideology and its application in the workplace will make more meani ngful workplace by enhancing self-respect and freedom. In addition, it means the removal of a layer of supervisors as the company no longer requires supervisors to monitor its employees. To sum up, when the employees are allowed autonomy, when they are provided reasonable salary and conducive workplace, and when the company does not interfere with their moral development, one can say that Kant’s theory of categorical imperative is accepted in spirit. II Principles of affirmative action are the principles which are intended

Principles of fundraising and sponsorship Speech or Presentation

Principles of fundraising and sponsorship - Speech or Presentation Example The donations have culminated into the establishment of new initiatives and services aimed at making the club survive. The Saints under 14s have benefited from the Paramed aimed at new strips as they will be kitted out in a brand strips. Basically there is black and white kits that are distinct are from Paramed UK. The deal helped the club to survive based on its financial significance as the club was faced with financial constraints. Despite the pros attached to such arrangements, serious strings are attached to sponsorships, and fundraising felt through several risks. Requesting for such fund requires in-depth understanding of principles of sponsorship and fundraising as well as the techniques used to obtain the donations. Donors need to be convinced by showing higher levels of accountability and transparency within the public sectors. Evaluation of fundraising, donations and sponsorship proactively is key in promoting ethical standards as it ensures that grants obtained serve the public interest. Despite the fact that donors expect nothing in return, they donate in order to change lives of other people and hence need for transparent and accountability. The sponsorship framework and Fundraising or Donation arrangement should not restrict Services ability to execute its roles impartially and to completion. The contract should outline that the Services functions shall proceed to execute its business impartially and fully without interference from the arrangement proposed (Norton 2007, p. 111). For instance, daily activities of ambulance van should not be shuttered by fundraising activities but to ensure its continuous operational tasks. The contract has a separate statement providing for termination of sponsorship if the arrangement compromises Services functions. For tender-attached sponsorship, the contract should ensure non-favoritism for parties involved. Secondly, there should be non-existence of real and apparent conflict between

Treaty of Versailles and change of diplomatic history Research Paper

Treaty of Versailles and change of diplomatic history - Research Paper Example This left Great Britain and Russia. The latter was not mostly contented with the territorial settlements coming from the peace agreement2; however, in any case Russia’s national issues and exclusion policy prevented her from fulfilling a European function of any importance.3 Great Britain, the only nation which could have been capable of playing a dynamic role, was more interested with her colonial or imperial relations, which implied that she favored to perceive the activities of Europe with subtle apathy4 when it was in her interest to do so. Therefore, the question is why did the United States refuse to shoulder the European responsibility and redirect the future of Europe? The involvement of the United States in the war and the ambitious plans of Woodrow Wilson for Europe originally bode favorably for the future. However, the United States was afterward to fulfill a vague function in the European affairs. She declined to approve the Treaty of Versailles, refused to promote the League of Nations, deserted the support for Europe with virtually rude haste, and turned down recommendations to connect inter-allied war liabilities and compensations.5 Furthermore, even though the United States recognized a belief in the vitality of the resurgence of Europe, her economic strategy frequently contradicts the interests of societies in Europe, for instance on subjects of financial, immigration, and tariffs regulation.6 It is a fact that the attitude of the United States towards Germany was more indulgent or relaxed than that of France or Britain, yet this merely functioned to provoke France since it tendered modestly in the issue of defense against a disobedient and wayward Germany.7 The isolationist policy of the United States towards Europe should be understood within the framework of her political system. In April 1917, the United States had joined the war hesitantly.8 After the end of aggressions there was a series of protests against hostilities and military actions, alongside a reluctance to intervene in the affairs of other nations which could result in more hostilities.9 This mainly explains the reason United States discovered herself in an inferior form of martial vigilance at the occurrence of World War II. Nevertheless, the Versailles Treaty, even though regarded as a failure, remains one of the most important events in history that radically changed the development of diplomacy. This essay will discuss in detail the above premise. Woodrow Wilson and the Versailles Treaty Of all the problems connected with the peace of Versailles, the figure of Woodrow Wilson looms as the object of the most enduring controversy. From the Fourteen Points to the minutest traits of his personality, Wilson has been intensively subjected to both critical and sympathetic scrutiny10 A vast number of people still believe that the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations are two distinct mechanisms. This, apparently, is inaccurate. The League of Nat ions Covenant was integrated as Section I in the Versailles Tr

In-N-Out Burger Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

In-N-Out Burger - Research Paper Example Over the years, the company has remained in the hands of the Synder family. The main reason behind In-N-Out Burger’s success is that it has a simple menu and maintains a customer-friendly attitude (Funding Universe, n.d.). Simplicity was what Synder had in mind when he opened the first In-N-Out Burger store. As its name suggests, everything about the company is quick and fast. Customers can go through the drive-thru and order via a two-way speaker unit; the menu is very limited; and prices remain competitive (Funding Universe, n.d.). Slow and steady was the philosophy that made this company so great. In recent times, the company has expanded into other states such as Arizona, Utah, and Texas (In-N-Out Burger, 2012). Many experts would say that the company has failed to become a national brand because it limits itself in terms of growth. However, when Harry and his wife founded In-N-Out Burger, their desire was to â€Å"serve customers high-quality, fresh food with efficient, friendly service in a clean and tidy environment† (Funding Universe, n.d.). Synder had no aspirations for turning In-N-Out Burger into a corporate brand; this is why the company has remained family-owned to this very day. Even though Harry Synder has passed away, his legacy lives on through his children and their children. Justification for International Expansion With the struggling economy these days, In-N-Out Burger needs to consider alternatives to the current markets in which it is involved in. There is potential growth in other states around America, but with the economy so fragile, it may not be the best move. In-N-Out Burger should look further afield and try to capture some of the huge global demand for fast food. In many developing countries, people are starting to turn to fast food as their incomes grow. Of course, In-N-Out Burger would have to adopt its strategy that was so successful in California. Prices would have to be lowered so that local consumers could affo rd it. Also, cultural considerations would have to be made so that the In-N-Out Burger brand does not get a bad reputation for offending religious and/or cultural values. In-N-Out Burger has already proven that it can expand to other states within the United States, albeit at a very slow pace. However, so long as In-N-Out Burger could retain control over its foreign operations, then there is no reason to say that the company could not still hold true to its philosophy. The problem is that when most other fast food restaurants expand overseas, they do so through franchising. This would not be suitable for In-N-Out Burger because it goes against the company’s core values. If the company was going to go down the franchise route, then they should make sure that American expats are put in charge because they would understand the company’s organizational values. Country Overview The three proposed countries that In-N-Out Burger should consider expanding to are Canada, France , and Japan. Each of these countries will be evaluated in terms of the fast food industry and In-N-Out Burger’s likelihood of success. Canada In terms of culture and food preferences, Canada is very similar to the United States. This makes Canada an ideal first step towards expanding overseas. As of 2010, the Canadian fast food industry was estimated to be worth C$ 20 billion (Euromonitor International, 2011). This shows that the fast food industry in alive and well in Canada. This probably means that there are limited growth opportunities because the market is already saturated with fast food chains. Tim Horton’s, with a 26 percent market share, and McDonald’s, with a 15 percent market share, are currently the two market leaders in the fast food industry. However, because Canadian consumers already frequent

Language Portfolio Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Language Portfolio - Essay Example This research is scattered across a number of different areas of inquiry and is of varying depth and quantity, ranging from expert opinion and linguistic analyses that is not accessible to practitioners, to a very few descriptive studies of classroom practice. A review of practical situation is needed to determine what the difference between general and academic language is. This difference can be traced when to examine different samples of text written in different style. In order to meet my research objective I will analyze language in both general and professional academic contexts, showing both differences and similarities of the language. These ideas will be incorporated into my own use of language. The main purpose of my study is to analyze language across the 3 genres. These genres include: vocabulary, grammar, style and treatment of evidence. In the course of my research I will compile different kinds of texts. Then I will compare these texts from the point of vocabulary, gra mmar, style and treatment of evidence. Finally, I will relate findings to my own language and will show how it is possible to apply my findings to my own writing. Professional language/General language Vocabulary The main purpose of business report is to inform or analyze rather than to dazzle your reader with exceptional jargon or complexity of your sentences. It means that there is no space for any kind of creative, adjective-filled prose in your report. You task is to put everything that belongs to business report. You can use â€Å"you,† but you should avoid â€Å"I† as well as long sentences or contractions. When choosing vocabulary for your task you should not forget that all that needed is to provide people with objective, non-emotive, and factual language. Consequently, there is no space for loaded words. In Appendix B you will find a sample of business report. The title of this report is Your Strategic Style Distribution. The first thing I would like to pay yo ur attention to is the use of generalizations lie â€Å"most†, â€Å"all† and etc. Academic business report also has its own technical words. When to read through the text in Appendix B, you will find the following specialized words: â€Å"I Opt†, â€Å"The RI†, â€Å"Reactive Stimulators†, â€Å"Hypothetical analyzer†, â€Å"The logical processor† all these words add special meaning to the text. When reading through this text you can get the idea that you are reading through academic research report simply because of language use. Grammar Punctuation is a crucial factor in ensuring that what you can reach your reader. Grammar should be the main focus of your assignment. Proper grammar use can help to make things clear and straightforward. It is strongly advised to avoid too long sentences. Instead you have to break your text into smaller units. Returning to appendix B you will see that the text does not contain long sentences. Instea d, all sentences are relatively short and clear. In order to understand my point, simply read the passage below: â€Å"In the â€Å"I Opt† survey measures the amount and kind of information a person considers before responding to new ideas, issues, goal/or processes. By understanding our strategic style(s) we are better equipped to increase our personal productivity and interactions with co-workers, family and friends. The following sections describe some of the ways this knowledge might be used for your benefit. (Smith, F . ,1983) Style Having dealt with

In-N-Out Burger Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

In-N-Out Burger - Research Paper Example Over the years, the company has remained in the hands of the Synder family. The main reason behind In-N-Out Burger’s success is that it has a simple menu and maintains a customer-friendly attitude (Funding Universe, n.d.). Simplicity was what Synder had in mind when he opened the first In-N-Out Burger store. As its name suggests, everything about the company is quick and fast. Customers can go through the drive-thru and order via a two-way speaker unit; the menu is very limited; and prices remain competitive (Funding Universe, n.d.). Slow and steady was the philosophy that made this company so great. In recent times, the company has expanded into other states such as Arizona, Utah, and Texas (In-N-Out Burger, 2012). Many experts would say that the company has failed to become a national brand because it limits itself in terms of growth. However, when Harry and his wife founded In-N-Out Burger, their desire was to â€Å"serve customers high-quality, fresh food with efficient, friendly service in a clean and tidy environment† (Funding Universe, n.d.). Synder had no aspirations for turning In-N-Out Burger into a corporate brand; this is why the company has remained family-owned to this very day. Even though Harry Synder has passed away, his legacy lives on through his children and their children. Justification for International Expansion With the struggling economy these days, In-N-Out Burger needs to consider alternatives to the current markets in which it is involved in. There is potential growth in other states around America, but with the economy so fragile, it may not be the best move. In-N-Out Burger should look further afield and try to capture some of the huge global demand for fast food. In many developing countries, people are starting to turn to fast food as their incomes grow. Of course, In-N-Out Burger would have to adopt its strategy that was so successful in California. Prices would have to be lowered so that local consumers could affo rd it. Also, cultural considerations would have to be made so that the In-N-Out Burger brand does not get a bad reputation for offending religious and/or cultural values. In-N-Out Burger has already proven that it can expand to other states within the United States, albeit at a very slow pace. However, so long as In-N-Out Burger could retain control over its foreign operations, then there is no reason to say that the company could not still hold true to its philosophy. The problem is that when most other fast food restaurants expand overseas, they do so through franchising. This would not be suitable for In-N-Out Burger because it goes against the company’s core values. If the company was going to go down the franchise route, then they should make sure that American expats are put in charge because they would understand the company’s organizational values. Country Overview The three proposed countries that In-N-Out Burger should consider expanding to are Canada, France , and Japan. Each of these countries will be evaluated in terms of the fast food industry and In-N-Out Burger’s likelihood of success. Canada In terms of culture and food preferences, Canada is very similar to the United States. This makes Canada an ideal first step towards expanding overseas. As of 2010, the Canadian fast food industry was estimated to be worth C$ 20 billion (Euromonitor International, 2011). This shows that the fast food industry in alive and well in Canada. This probably means that there are limited growth opportunities because the market is already saturated with fast food chains. Tim Horton’s, with a 26 percent market share, and McDonald’s, with a 15 percent market share, are currently the two market leaders in the fast food industry. However, because Canadian consumers already frequent

Dickens Elicit Sympathy for His Protagonist Pip Essay Example for Free

Dickens Elicit Sympathy for His Protagonist Pip Essay Charles Dickens was born in 1812 and past away in 1870. Dickens was born into quite a poor family. He attended a small school until he was 12 and got a job sticking the labels onto the sides of bottles. He did not enjoy this job to the presence of vermin on the premises. His parents and siblings got arrested for being in deep debt so Dickens visited them in jail. This led him into a route of life where he had no friends and no reliable source of money. After this he got a job at a solicitor which made him fell even more strongly towards his views that lie and law were unjust. He may have thought this originally because of his parents arrests. Working at the solicitor made Dickens realise that money made life a lot easier and that lack of money brought poverty and sadness. Dickens started his writing career by writing for magazines and newspapers. Most of his money came from a monthly magazine. This is where a part of his story would be published in each issue of the magazine and the next part of the book is in the next issue. This encouraged the readers to buy the next issue and this brought Dickens his wealth. Although he was wealthy just then he would never forget the time in his life when he was force to live in poverty. I think that these life experiences of poverty and sadness may have inspired him to write about them. Such books as Great Expectations and Oliver Twist both refer to a poor child with no parents. This really shows that he is relating these novels to his own experiences. I think that Dickens may have wrote this book to really show the world was like for him but disguising himself at the same time. Maybe he wasnt meaning to refer to his past life experiences but because he will never forget these times it probably came out in his writing even if he didnt mean it to. When Dickens wrote for a monthly magazine he probably thought, if he left the story in a cliff hanger or left the reader feeling that they want to know more, then the magazine would sell more copies. He may have used Pip for this purpose, by, in the way that he makes us feel sorry for him in places where the magazine issue may have ended. He would have used things like still it was all dark, and only the candle lighted us. If the issue ended here then the reader will have just found out about Pip having to go to Satis House and will have just learned about Estella. The reader would want to know what the rest of the house is like and what happens to Pip while he is there. This quotation leaves the reader wandering if anything out to get Pip lies in the dark corridors. Dickens could be using the dark passageways as a way of showing how Pip felt about being in Satis House: he knows no-one; he is on his own and he doesnt know what might happen to him. The dark corridors may be his thoughts about the place he s in and the way he feels about it all- very alone and not sure where he stands with the candle being his only hope, but there is hope. This could relate to when Dickens parents got arrested and he was left all alone in the dark, the corridors, with only the hope of seeing them and the chance of their release at heart, which could resemble the candle. Satis house would be laid out in a darker way than it would be today de to the time that the book was written. This was during the gothic era during which other books such as Mary Shellys Frankenstein and Bram Stokers Dracula were written. This gives you a feel of the time in which Great Expectations was written in.  When Pip enters Satis house he is probably very afraid. This wasnt helped by the treatment he faced from Estella. Though she called me boy so often, with a carelessness that was far from complimentary, she was of about my own age. She seemed much older than I, of course, being a girl, and beautiful and self-possessed; and she was as scornful of me as if she had been one-and-twenty, and a queen.  This kind of grown-up and almost insulting behaviour from someone his own age must have made Pip feel very intimidated and worried of the impression he would give as he clearly likes her when he says being a girl, and beautiful. He may think that if he does not behave in a way that she would consider as appropriate and accepted behaviour of an adult then he would stand no chance in getting to know her better. This makes us feel sorry for him because he is, again, the under-dog. This time to a person, who happens to be the same age as him as apposed to the building and the surroundings that he is in. As Pip gets over the original shock of being put somewhere he has never been with people he has never met before, he begins to take in the house and its surroundings. The house is a very scary place for Pip because he is not used to the vastness and also the dark corridors and hallways. The first thing I noticed was that the passages were all dark and that she had left a candle burning there. Had Pip been used to these surroundings in a great house then he would not have noticed these things but thought it to be normal. Pip comes from a poor family who live in a small house in the country which, again, shows that he would really not feel comfortable in a great house with dark rooms and corridors. During Pips visit to Satis House he meets a woman called Mrs Haversham. Pips first impression of Mrs Haversham are that she is a strange lady who does nothing but sit in her room and feel sorry for herself. I found myself in a pretty large room, well lighted with wax candles. No glimpse of daylight to be seen in it. This is the first thing Pip says in the book when he enters the room. He was probably expecting to go into an open room with large windows letting in the bright day from outside. Pip would definitely have been shocked to see Mrs Haversham sitting on her own in the dim light provided by many candles. When he sees Mrs Haversham he does think she is strange because he says, With her head leaning on that hand, sat the strangest lady I have ever seen, or shall ever see. This was probably quite an awkward moment for Pip as he almost certainly didnt know how to react to seeing her, as he said, Sat the strangest lady I have ever seen, or will ever see. His views of Mrs Haversham are quite likely to be changed as he sees that everything that she has by her or on her is aged and yellow. Everything within my view which ought to be white, and had been white long ago, had lost its lustre, and was faded and yellow. This would seem very strange to Pip as most of the things in his house, that were meant to be white, were white and not allowed to age and go yellow as his strict sister-come-mother would not allow it. When Pip enters the room he says nothing of a greeting as he is so taken a-back by his surroundings and the woman sitting in the chair. When Mrs Haversham finally speaks and breaks the silence she does so in a way that shows to affection or welcoming. Who is it? This is what Mrs Haversham says in welcome to Pip. Its not really what you would expect as a greeting so he probably felt a bit bashful.

Influence of Physical Punishment on Adolescents Self-esteem

Influence of Physical Punishment on Adolescents Self-esteem Introduction Disciplinary incidents are central to moral development because disciplinary practices assist to inculcate moral standards and values that provide the basis for self-controlled behaviour within the child (Brody Shaffer, 1982, p.32). Amongst the various disciplinary methods, physical punishment is widely practised across different cultures and countries. The present study focused on non-abusive physical punishment and adopted the definition by Straus (1994) that physical punishment â€Å"is the use of physical force with the intention of causing a child to experience pain, but not injury, for the purpose of correction or control of the childs behaviour† (p.4). This definition was used to delineate non-abusive physical punishment from harsher forms of abusive punishment. The term â€Å"corporal punishment† is synonymous and has been used interchangeably with physical punishment. We used the term â€Å"physical punishment† in this study because it specifically indi cates that punishment is meted out in a physical and bodily manner. A survey conducted in Jamaica revealed that physical punishment is frequently practiced in home and school (Smith Mosby, 2003). Physical punishment is also common in south-west Ethiopia (Admassu, Belachew, Haileamalak, 2006). This disciplinary method, however, is not peculiar to developing countries. Even in socially privileged countries, physical punishment is also used as a disciplinary method. Approximately 60% of Hong Kong Chinese parents admitted to using physical punishment as a form of discipline (Tang, 2006). In America, 94% of 3- and 4-year olds have been physically punished by their parents at least once during the past year (Straus Stewart, 1999), and 85% of Americans believed that â€Å"a good hard spanking is sometimes necessary† (Bauman Friedman, 1998). Beliefs in its positive disciplinary effects contributed to the widespread use of physical punishment (Straus, 1994) and there are evidence-based studies supporting the idea that physical punishment suppresses undesired behaviour (Gershoff, 2002; Larzelere, 2000; Paolucci Violato, 2004). For example, studies in Larzeleres (2000) meta-analysis provided evidence that non-abusive spanking used by loving parents reduced subsequent noncompliance and fighting in 2- to 6-year olds. In relation to Larzeleres (2000) findings, Gershoff (2002) found a large mean effect size for immediate compliance following corporal punishment. However, as noted by Gershoff (2002), these beneficial outcomes are only temporarily because physical punishment neither teaches children the reasons for behaving correctly, nor does it communicate what effects their behaviours have on others. Hence, physical punishment may not facilitate moral internalisation of the intended disciplinary message (Gershoff, 2002). Moreover, the demerits may outweigh the merits of punishment because studies suggested that physical punishment carry with it unintended and adverse effects (Holden, 2002; Rohner, Kean, Cournoyer, 1991; Straus, 1994). In response to the increasingly condemnatory international views about physical punishment, 25 states, to date, abolished all forms of physical punishment on children (Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, 2009). Burgeoning research has related physical punishment to a variety of negative effects. These effects ranged from social-emotional and psychological problems, such as mental distress and withdrawal (Eamon, 2001), to behavioural problems, such as antisocial behaviour and increased aggression (Deater-Deckard, Dodge, Blates, Pettit, 1996; Sim Ong, 2005; Straus, Sugarman, Giles-Sims, 1997; Tang, 2006). Straus et al. (1997) suggested that a â€Å"dose response† to physical punishment for children may exist, such that more frequent and longer usage of punishment will lead to increased probability of behaviour problems. These potentially adverse effects of physical punishment may also carry over into adulthood in the form of increased psychopathology and violent behaviour (Eron, 1996); substance abuse, depression, family violence, and suicide (Afifi, Brownridge, Cox, Sareen, 2006; Straus, 1995; Straus Kantor, 1994). Eron (1996) indicated that the more harshly 8- and 9-year olds we re punished, the more aggressive and antisocial they were in late adolescence and young adulthood. Afifi and colleagues (2006) also found individuals who were physically punished, as compared to those who were not, had higher risk for major depression, alcohol abuse or dependence and externalising problems in adulthood, and these effects were not attenuated after controlling for sociodemographic variables and parental bonding. In addition, Straus (1995) found significant positive correlation between the level of punishment experienced as a child and level of depressive symptoms and thoughts of committing suicide in adulthood, after controlling for socioeconomic status (SES), martial violence, and witnessing violence as a child. In the past decade, at least three meta-analyses were conducted to review research on the effects of physical punishment. Larzelere (2000) reviewed a total of 38 studies and found both beneficial (as discussed above) and negative effects of physical punishment. From 17 causally relevant studies, the author highlighted apparent detrimental effects of physical punishment. He first pointed out that physical punishment predicted increased subsequent negative externalising behaviour, supporting the â€Å"violence begets violence† viewpoint. One of the studies reviewed was the controlled longitudinal studies of the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (Larzelere Smith, as cited in Larzelere, 2000), which provided not only consistent but also causally relevant evidence that physical punishment is associated to subsequent increase in antisocial behaviour. Secondly, Larzelere (2000) indicated that physical punishment predicted increased mental health problems. The links between physic al punishment and both increased negative externalising behaviour and mental health problems were further supported by another meta-analysis, which evaluated 88 published works spanning a 62 year period. Gershoff (2002) found that physical punishment was indeed significantly associated to increased aggression, increased delinquency, increased antisocial behaviour, and decreased mental health, to name a few. All 20 studies involving mental health in Gershoffs (2000) meta-analysis found frequency of corporal punishment to be positively and significantly related to a decrease in childrens mental health. Straus and Kantor (1994) reported that after controlling for low SES, those who experienced corporal punishment in adolescence were still at higher risk for depression, suicidal thoughts and alcohol abuse. Although Paolucci and Violato (2004), who conducted another meta-analyses and evaluated 70 studies between 1961 and 2000, did not find exposure to corporal punishment led to increased risk of developing cognitive problems (e.g., suicidal thoughts and attitudes toward violence), they found that people who experienced corporal punishment were at a small but increased risk for developing behavioural (e.g., aggression and antisocial behaviours) and affective problems (e.g., psychological impairment and low self-esteem). Physical punishment appears to have a dampening effect on self-esteem in its victims. However, studies have been inconclusive and evidence-based literature in this area is much thinner, as compared to the large number of published articles on physical punishment and increased externalising behaviours, such as childrens aggression, which is one of the most studied in the literature on parenting (Paolucci Violato, 2004). Only 3 studies (Adams, 1995; Larzelere, Kein, Schumm, Alibrano, 1989; Sears, 1970) cited in Larzeleres (2000) meta-analysis, investigated the association between physical punishment and self-esteem. Specifically, Larzelere et al. (1989) found the amount of spanking received negatively predicted self-esteem but the negative correlations between punishment, self-esteem, and perception of fairness of punishment were reduced to non-significance after controlling for parental positive communication. The other study included in the meta-analysis did not find a significant correlation between physical punishment and subsequent self-esteem (Sears, 1970). Jouberts (1991) study, which was not included in the meta-analysis, also found no evidence indicating spanking to have any effect on childrens self-esteem scores, regardless whether spanking was administered by mothers or fathers, or both. On the other hand, one of the three studies as cited in Larzeleres (2000) meta-analysis found lower self-esteem among 6- to 12-year olds, especially those who were hit with high frequency (twice a week), even after controlling for ethnicity, cognitive enrichment and poverty (Adams, 1995). Furthermore, recent studies, which were not included in the meta-analysis, also found similar results. Using data from 1,397 children, Eamon (2001) found 4- to 9-year-old children who received more frequent spanking exhibited more socio-emotional problems like low self-esteem. In another study, Amato and Fowler (2002) investigated the relationship between parental use of corporal punishment and childrens self-esteem, using data collected from 3,400 households with a child within the age range of 5-18. Similarly, parents use of corporal punishment was found to predict lower self-esteem. Bauman and Friedman (1998) argued that physical punishment retards the development of self-esteem, and Paolucci and Violato (2004) used findings of corporal punishment being associated with psychosocial problems, such as depression, as supporting evidence that physical punishment is related to impaired self-esteem. Coercive disciplinary techniques are also linked to decreases in childrens level of confidence and assertiveness, and increases in feelings of humiliation and helplessness (Gershoff, 2002). One explanation for these findings is the fear of punishment makes people attempt to escape. However, when escaping from punishment is not possible, feelings of learned helplessness and depression may develop (Paolucci Violato, 2004). Self-esteem, as defined by Rosenberg (1965), is a positive or negative attitude towards the self. Interestingly, self-esteem stability in childhood and adolescence does not differ between genders (Trzesniewski, Donnellan, Robins, 2003). Research has shown that self-esteem has a pervasive impact on an individuals life in numerous areas. Emotionally, individuals with low self-esteem have a tendency to exhibit higher levels of anxiety, experience more frequent psychosomatic symptoms, feelings of depression, lack of personal acceptance and submissiveness (Battle, 1992). Low self-esteem is also an important predictor for disruptive and maladaptive behaviours (Aunola, Stattin, Nurmi, 2000; Vandergriff Rust, 1989). An individuals social functioning can also be affected by his level of self-esteem. Children with high self-esteem are more popular among peers and participate more actively in social groups, unlike those with low self-esteem, who experience more difficulties forming friendshi ps (Battle, 1992; Growe, 1980). Self-esteem has also been supported by research evidence, to be positively related to academic self-efficacy. This significant relationship is found in Western countries (Jonson-Reid, Davis, Saunders, Williams, Williams, 2005; Smith, Walker, Fields, Brookins, Seary, 1999), as well as in Singapore (Ang, Neubronner, Oh, Leong, 2006). An important trend in the international research focuses on the effects of physical punishment on children (Ripoll- Nà ºÃƒ ±ez Rohner, 2006). Considering that self-esteem has a wide range of influence on an individuals life and the current literature remains inconclusive on the effects physical punishment have on self-esteem, we chose to investigate the relationship between non-abusive physical punishment administered by adolescents main disciplinarian and adolescents level of self-esteem. Self-esteem plays a vital role in an individuals development, and if physical punishment has negative effects on adolescents self-esteem, it is likely that his level of self-esteem will affect his psychosocial and educational development, and his overall well-being. For instance, his academic success and ability to socialise contribute to his current and future well-being. The relationship between physical punishment and adolescents outcome cannot be simply described as two distinct categories, such that physically punished adolescents will experience negative outcomes, and adolescents who have never been physically punished will not. Instead, this relationship may lie on a continuum and the frequency of physical punishment may play an important role in the punishment-outcome link, such that increase in frequency of punishment will lead to increased probability of negative outcomes. Since a dose response towards physical punishment was suggested by Straus et al. (1997), and a positive relationship between the frequency of physical punishment and negative outcomes was concurred by Larzelere (2000) and Gershoff (2002), and more specifically, Adams (1995) and Eamon (2001) found lower self-esteem, especially among those who experienced frequent use of physical punishment, we chose to investigate the punishment-self-esteem link by focusing on the frequency of punishment. With increased frequency of physical punishment, lower self-esteem can be expected. The weight of the existing research seems to favour the viewpoint that non-abusive physical punishment carries with it negative baggage. However, unlike physical abuse, the conclusion that non-abusive physical punishment indeed has detrimental consequences on adolescents well-being cannot be substantiated. Researchers at the opposite end of the debate cite conflicting evidence and physical punishment remains the most controversial topic in the domain of parental discipline (Holden, 2002; Larzelere, 1996). The main debate remains on whether non-abusive physical punishment is completely harmful or it has negative effects only when used within certain conditions. As summarised by Ripoll- Nà ºÃƒ ±ez and Rohner (2006), the â€Å"conditional defenders† of corporal punishment argued that the effects of punishment may be positive, negative, or both depending on the conditions in which it was administered. As proposed in Gershoffs process-context model (2002), the link between physical punishment and its impact on the child is not direct and isolated. Instead, contextual factors of varying levels of influence may moderate the processes linking punishment and child constructs (Gershoff, 2002). This is supported by the fact that majority of the 94% of 3- and 4-year-old Americans who experienced physical punishment did not experience negative outcomes, such as developing into clinically aggressive adults or criminals. Critics of past research argued that many studies which linked physical punishment to negative effects have methodological flaws because they did not take into account the influence of moderating variables, which when included, tended to attenuate the relationship between punishment and negative outcomes (Rohner, Bourque, Elordi, 1996). Since not all individuals who experienced non-abusive physical punishment experienced negative outcomes, the present study further examined two potential moderators of the punishment-self-esteem link: namely, adolescents perceptions on the fairness of physical punishment and caregiver acceptance-rejection. Typically, research in this area has relied on parental reports of physical punishment. However, parents may underreport the use of physical punishment due to social desirability. Parents may feel threaten to disclose the frequency with which they physically punish their children because it is not advocated in contemporary society, hence providing inaccurate data (Shum-Cheung, Hawkins, Lim, 2006). Moreover, if parent is the source of data on both the punishment and childrens behaviours, they may attempt to justify their punishment through the parental report of child behaviour (Bauman Friedman, 1998). Following, we collected retrospective account of physical punishment from the recipients of the disciplinary practice, and further explored the possible moderating effect their cognitive perceptions on the punishment, may exert on the punishment-self-esteem link. The impact of punishment on adolescents is not unidirectional because adolescents are not simply passive recipients of the punishment. Instead how adolescents perceive the punishment may affect the impact it has on their outcomes. As noted by Holden (2002), noticeably absent from research is studies of childrens perceptions and reactions to punishment. It has been suggested that effects of physical punishment may be moderated by the meaning children ascribes to the punishment (Benject Kazdin, 2003). Ignorance of this may lead to an inaccurate picture on the effects of punishment because the key to understanding how physical punishment affects its victims lies in understanding how they react to the punishment physiologically, affectively, and cognitively (Gershoff, 2002). Holden (2002) further posited that this reaction involves at least two processes, namely, immediate physiological and sensory reaction, followed by the secondary cognitive appraisal stage. In line with Ripoll- Nà º à ±ez and Rohners (2006) suggestions on variables that are important in the research of physical punishment and its effects on children, we explored the potential moderating effect of adolescents perceptions of fairness of physical punishment, which has been considered to ameliorate the negative outcomes of punishment (Rohner et al., 1991; Rohner et al., 1996). Grusec and Goodnow (1994) suggested that children, who perceive punishment as fair, will be more willing to accept the intended disciplinary message, which then facilitates internalisation. Since adolescents are the recipients of parental disciplinary practices, the knowledge of their perceptions on the fairness of punishment will open the window to their internal mental processes, which is how they interpret and internalise the punishment. This provides a more complete understanding of the relationship between punishment and self-esteem. Concerns regarding whether adolescents are mature enough to make sensible judgments abo ut the fairness of discipline can be allayed because Konstantareas and Desbois (2001) found 4-year-old preschoolers capable of making judgments about the fairness of discipline by mothers, and in a study conducted in Singapore, parents and 10- to 12-year-old childrens responses on fairness of discipline were similar (Shum-Cheung et al., 2006). Therefore, if adolescents perceive physical punishment as fair, the effects of punishment on their self-esteem may not be deleterious. Following, the negative association between physical punishment and self-esteem can be expected to be stronger at lower levels, as compared with higher levels of perceived fairness. Little is also known about the conditions under which punishment occurs (Bauman Friedman, 1998) and if information regarding the context in which the punishment is meted out is not captured, only a snapshot of the impact of punishment on adolescents will be known. Opponents of physical punishment have acknowledged that physical punishment by itself is unlikely to produce negative child outcomes. However, when combined with other risk factors in the family, negative effects of physical punishment may surface (Bauman Friedman, 1998). Therefore, certain factors in the adolescents family may influence the cognitive appraisal process of the punishment and, consequently, buffer the negative effects. Corporal punishment is considered to be beneficial when administered by emotionally supportive parents who share positive interactions with their children (Paolucci Violato, 2004). As discussed above, Larzelere et al. (1989) reported that positive parental communication moderated the punishment-self-esteem link. Therefore, information regarding other aspects of parenting, such as the warmth dimension, will provide a much fuller understanding towards the relationship between physical punishment and self-esteem. As construed in the parental acceptance-rejection theory (PARTheory), parental acceptance and rejection form the warmth dimension of parenting (Rohner, 1991). Perceived parental acceptance-rejection may be one of the most important parenting dimensions to consider because no cultural or ethnic group was found where perceived parental acceptance-rejection failed to correlate with the predicted personality dispositions (Rohner Britner, 2002). PARTheory predicted rejected children, as compared to children who perceived themselves as being accepted, are more likely to have an impaired sense of self-esteem, amidst other negative effects (Rohner, 1991; Rohner Britner, 2002). Rohner (1991) used Meads (1934) significant other concept to explain how parental rejection may affect self-esteem. PARTheory assumed that everyone tends to view ourselves as we imagine â€Å"significant others† view us. Therefore, if parents who are childrens most significant other reject them, they are more likely to define themselves as unworthy, and consequently develop an overall sense of negative self-evaluation, including feelings of negative self-esteem and self-adequacy (Rohner, 1991). Although the term â€Å"parent† is used in PARTheory, Rohner (1991) explained it refers to the major caregiver of the child, not necessarily the parents. Therefore, we used the term â€Å"caregiver† instead of â€Å"parent† in this study. Variations in perceived caregiver acceptance-rejection among adolescents may magnify or minimise the effects of physical punishment and this has been supported by cross-cultural evidence. Rohner et al. (1991), for example, found severe physical punishment to be related to psychological maladjustment among Kittitian youths and the effects became more substantial when it was paired with caregiver rejection. Similarly, results from another study conducted in Georgia showed that the association between perceived harshness of punishment and psychological maladjustment disappeared once perceptions of caregiver acceptance-rejection were accounted for (Rohner et al., 1996). In the context of Singapore, perceived parental acceptance-rejection was also found to play an important moderating role. Sim and Ong (2005) found perceived fathers rejection moderated the link between slapping and daughters level of aggression, and perceived mothers rejection moderated the canning-aggression link among S ingapore Chinese preschoolers of both genders. All these studies uniformly showed that childrens perception of caregiver acceptance-rejection has a significant impact on the association between physical punishment and its outcomes. Thus, at higher compared to lower levels of perceived caregiver rejection, a stronger negative association between physical punishment and self-esteem can be expected. We collected data on adolescents perceptions of caregiver acceptance and rejection, and frequency of physical punishment by their main disciplinarian, rather than their main caregiver. This is because our study used a Singapore Chinese sample, and it is common within this group that the main disciplinarian may not be the main caregiver. In Chinese societies, traditional roles of disciplinarian and caregiver are respectively played by fathers and mothers, and this role differentiation still applies in Singapore (Quah, 1999). In cases where the disciplinarian and caregiver are different persons, the adolescent may experience more punishment from the disciplinarian as compared to the caregiver, and the impact of punishment from the main disciplinarian will not be reflected if punishment administered by the caregiver was measured. Since the main disciplinarian is the adult who administers punishment, effects of punishment may be moderated by the adolescents perceived acceptance from his main caregiver, who plays the key caring role and spends the most time with him. Collecting data on adolescents perceptions of caregiver acceptance-rejection allowed us to examine the punishment-self-esteem link through the relationship between caregiver and adolescent. As pointed out by Larzelere (2000), one of the needs in the research on physical punishment is for studies to take a developmental perspective because reviews by Larzelere (2000) and Gershoff (2002) found outcomes of punishment varied by the childs age. For example, Gershoff (2002) found that with increased age, the association between corporal punishment and aggressive and antisocial behaviours became stronger. Following, we used a retrospective design to investigate the association between physical punishment and self-esteem, and the impact the two proposed moderators may have on this link, at two age frames, namely when the individual was 11- to 12-years old (early adolescence) and 15- to 16-years old (middle adolescence). Although physical punishment is at its zenith when children are aged 3-5 (Straus Stewart, 1999), and its frequency decreases as children grow older, physical punishment is still prevalent during adolescence (Straus et al., 1997). Straus (1994) found more than 6 0% of parents in America reported hitting 10- to 12-year olds, and even at ages 15-17, one out of four adolescents is still physically punished. The two age frames were chosen partly because this study was retrospective in nature, and memories of punishment incidents during early childhood may be weak due to the long time passage that passed. Additionally, an average Singapore student aged 11- to 12-years old and 15- to 16-years old, is in preparation for the national examinations, namely, the Primary School Leaving Examination and GCE ‘O Levels, respectively. Being the periods of their major examinations, memories during these periods may be much clearer and distinct, and this will provide the study with more accurate data. Children below age 8 have not developed the concept of global self-esteem, thus another reason for focusing at these two age frames is that at ages 11-12 and 15-16, adolescents will have developed the ability to â€Å"view themselves in terms of stable dispositions, which permits them to combine their separate self-evaluations into an overall sense of self-esteem† (Berk, 2006, p.449). Moreover, unlike in early childhood, individual differences in self-esteem from early to middle adolescence become increasingly stable (Trzesniweski et al., 2003), which allowed us to explore the punishment-self-esteem link more precisely. According to Eriksons stages of psychosocial development (as cited in Berk, 2006), he organised life into eight stages that extend from birth to death, of which two stages were related to the present study. During the latency stage, where 11- and 12-year olds will be categorized, they enter school and are required to develop a sense of competence through the social interactions in school. With a wider range of socialisation opportunities, their relationships with parents may no longer be the most significant but it remains influential because little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers may lead them to doubt their ability to succeed (Berk, 2006). However, 15- and 16-year olds are in the adolescence stage, where the need to develop an independent identity that is separated from the family, becomes the key developmental task, and relationships with peer groups become the most significant relationship. Hence the attenuation of familial influence for adolescents aged 15-1 6 may decrease as compared to when they were 11- to 12-years old. Moreover, 15- and 16-year olds fall in Piagets formal operational stage, which represents the apex of cognitive development (Siegler Richards, 1982). Unlike the subsequent stage, 11- and 12-year olds are in the concrete operational stage and can only â€Å"operate on reality†. But formal operational adolescents developed the ability for abstract thinking and can engage in hypothetico-deductive reasoning and propositional thought, to conjure more general logical rules through internal reflection (Berk, 2006). Additionally, they can apply their abstract reason abilities to all areas of life (Siegler Richards, 1982). Following, it may be the case that adolescents perceptions of caregiver acceptance-rejection play a greater role, than perceived fairness of punishment, in moderating the link between punishment and self-esteem, when they are aged 11 to 12. Because their social circle though expanded, still centres around their parents and how accepted or rejected they perceived th eir caregiver to be may still play a significant role unlike during middle adolescence. At ages 15-16, adolescents perceived fairness of punishment may matter more than perceived caregiver acceptance because their relationship with their caregiver is not the most critical factor in their psychosocial development. Additionally, their growing need for independence from their parents as well as their capacities to think through their own best interests with their greater cognitive awareness, may influence them to place more emphasis on their personal thoughts, and on their friends views but less on what their caregiver thinks of them. Within the realm of punishment research, it is also important to acknowledge the existing attitudes towards physical punishment within the particular culture. As pointed out by proponents of physical punishment, aside from the family, the cultural context also buffers potential negative consequences of physical punishment (Bauman Friedman, 1998). Acceptance of physical punishment varies across cultures and it may contribute to variations in child outcomes across different groups because cultural values and beliefs affect whether punishment is used more instrumentally or emotionally, and how children emotionally respond to it (Gershoff, 2002; Larzelere, 2000). Larezeleres (2000) highlighted five studies which presented evidence of significantly differential effects of spanking by ethnicity. Deater-Deckard et al. (1996), for example, found maternal use of physical punishment predicted externalising behaviours only for European American, but not African American children. The authors s uggested that this may be due to the stronger acceptance and preference for physical punishment among African American, in contrast to European American parents, hence affecting the manner in which punishment is used and childrens perceptions of its appropriateness. Similarly, Gunnoe and Mariner (1997) found spanking to be negatively related to African American girls later aggressive behaviours, but positively related to European American boys later aggressive behaviours. Majority of the studies, which investigated the link between physical punishment and self-esteem, were conducted in Western countries, such as America. However, attitudes towards childrearing in Western countries are different from those of the Asian cultures in Singapore (Tong, Elliot, Tan, 1996). Unlike Western cultures, which display a lower tolerance of physical punishment, this form of discipline is popular within the Asian culture. â€Å"Spare the rod and spoil the child† is an old saying which reflects the prevalent parental attitude, especially among Singapore Chinese parents, who continue using caning to discipline children and view physical punishment as an effective disciplinary method (Elliot, Thomas, Chan, Chow, 2000). Being a multi-ethnic society, ethnic differences exist in childrearing techniques, which may lead to differences in usage of physical punishment across ethnic groups. A study conducted by Quah (1999) on the Singapore family found Chinese parents t ended to use physical punishment more than other parents, while Malay and Indian parents were most likely to use reasoning, and authority was most frequently used by parents in the group Other. Considering that ethnicity may affect the outcome of physical punishment, this research recruited only Singapore Chinese participants.